Limitations to Small-scale Groundwater Irrigation and Forging a Path to the Future - Part Two: Money and Markets

Alas! Your patience is rewarded! Prepare yourself for "Part Two: Money and Markets".

This time, we will continue discussion on what factors are currently holding back the groundwater revolution, and how they can and should be addressed to improve access and applicability of groundwater irrigation for small-scale farmers across Africa. Last time we discussed pumps and power; this time we’re thinking about money and markets.

Access to Credit and Sources of Capital

The access to sources of capital, according to Villholth(2013), is currently one of the largest constraints faced by poor farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. Whilst these farmers can draw from their own savings, borrow from family and community members, make use of remittances or generate income through farm proceeds, often many still fall short of the required amount to invest. This is an issue only made worse by the current exclusion of the rural poor from formal credit institutions and private money lenders. Rural farmers are isolated from such services both physically (due to their concentration in urban areas) and financially (due to high interest rates and a lack of collateral).

It can often be incredibly hard for farmers to get their hands on the money they need to kick-start irrigation

Micro-finance schemes (and the promotion of such) that are adapted to suit the needs of rural people are one way in which locals, governments and NGOs can increase rural access to the necessary capital to invest in groundwater irrigation. Subsidies can also play a huge role in increasing access and feasibility; Carter and Howsam (1994) observe that the widespread use of groundwater irrigation in Northern Nigeria in rural areas was only possible due to the government’s subsidized provision of wells and pumping technology, alongside focused subsidies that encouraged supply and fuel outlets to develop. Villholth (2013) concurs with the idea that subsidies can pay a huge role, however reminds us that these subsidies need to be focused and smart, “targeted to those who need them, limited in time and designed to enhance rather than supplant commercial production and distribution” in order to effectively promote industries and avoid dependency.

Market Infrastructures

As Carter and Howsam (1994) aptly put it, the “economic viability of small-scale irrigation” depends heavily on “price and access to markets”. Essentially, if farmers cannot sell the crops they grow, then they cannot afford to sustain groundwater irrigation practices. Villholth (2013) further supports this, noting how groundwater irrigation must be used to produce cash crops in order to be a profitable and viable agricultural technique.

If the distance to market is too great or the road too treacherous, then farmers can oftentimes find themselves cut off from the economy

Markets then are essential. But how do you create a market? Many factors need to come together in order to create viable, fair and supportive market systems. First, there needs to be demand for the crops being produced. By creating better links with cities, where Villholth (2013) observes there are far more instances of diversified diets (possibly due to the relatively progressive culture of cities), demand for a wide variety of crops and fruits can be created. On top of this, efficient road networks are required, in order to increase access to markets for both farmers and buyers. Generally, greater prevalent of storage facilities for crops as well as telecommunications can also make transactions fairer, as it becomes harder for small-scale farmers to become trapped into unfair deals.

Land Tenure and Insecurity

Frequently, small-scale farmers find themselves facing insecurity, due to land being rented or under communal tenure. This has been seen to hold back the expansion of groundwater irrigation, as investments can be too risky for small-scale farmers to dare make (Villholth 2013). In order to encourage the growth of irrigation, therefore, there needs to be greater understanding and security of ownership for rural farmers, who can then feel safe in expanding their agricultural capabilities through investments in groundwater irrigation.

Assured ownership of land goes a long way to encourgaing investment

Conclusions

So, just as the potential for groundwater irrigation seems huge, so do its limitations. Barriers to a small-scale groundwater revolution are significant, and range from issues of technology being sustainable to a lack of access to markets and insecure tenure. On a positive note, however, these are all issues that can be addressed. Through focused and appropriate government intervention, supply lines for technology can be created, markets and demand established, tenure security improved and financial gateways offered for the rural poor and small-scale farmers. That is, however, if governments  realise just how valuable small-scale irrigation can be, and finally get around to answering the call.

There is a whole other side to this argument however that I have been glossing over, and that is the issue of sustainability. The great question remains; just how far can groundwater go as a solution to food insecurity and rural poverty before the taps begin to run dry?

This is an incredibly complicated question. For some areas, where usage is low, this will never be a problem. For others, where usage soars, issues may arise down the line of a falling water table and insufficient recharge rates. What makes issues of sustainability even harder to address is the ambiguity that exists across Africa as to the real extent of groundwater resources. Hopefully, if you can stand the wait until next week, all of these questions will be answered.

Limitations to Small-Scale Groundwater Irrigation and Forging a Path to the Future - Part One: Pumps and Power

Last week we explored in detail the potential and promise that groundwater holds for Africa’s future. To briefly recap, we learnt about the benefits that groundwater can bring to farmers and local communities, and the potential for expansion of around 13 million hectares, which could serve 26 million families (according to Pavelic etal. 2013). Whilst it is no panacea, it seems then that groundwater could really go a long way to helping solve Africa’s problem not only of food security, but also of increasing water variability.

Groundwater may be the way forward for agiculture in Sub-Saharan Africa

As with most solutions to Africa’s problems however, whilst it looks very pretty on paper, it is not nearly as simple and straightforward as it seems. While groundwater is promising, in reality for the vast majority of Africans it is still a project that is too far out of reach, and there is a lot of work that needs to be done to make it a viable and applicable farming technique and to maximise the benefits it can provide.

There are several areas that need to be addressed to make groundwater irrigation more appropriate and adoptable for small-scale farmers. For the sake of simplicity, in this blog I will address them individually, but in reality they are each highly connected, only adding to the complexity of the issue.

Access to and Sustainability of Groundwater Infrastructure

According to Villholth (2013), currently the majority of small-scale groundwater irrigation is conducted through both manual lifting and the use of small pumps (typically powered by petrol or diesel, and sometimes (but rarely) electricity). Both are dramatically different methods, and hence feature different challenges and requirements in order to become widespread.

Manual Groundwater Infrastructure

Generally, the limitations that face manual techniques of accessing groundwater are more situational than technical. These methods tend to be found in areas underlain by shallow, high yielding aquifers, where simple, low-technology methods are more than suitable for accessing relatively abundant groundwater. Typically, then, issues stem from not a lack of technology, but a lack of labour. Many of these areas in rural Africa have low population densities, and hence expansion of groundwater use is limited by the lack of population to support it. Whilst there is no real “fix” to this problem, undoubtedly greater communications and transport infrastructure would aid in increasing employment and accessibility to farms.

Shadufs are one method of manual or non-technical groundwater extraction

Mechanical Groundwater Infrastructure

In areas that demand more technical solutions to accessing groundwater, the problems take an entirely different vein. Here issues are more of affordability and sustainability than access to labour. To even gain access to groundwater in these regions, a relatively significant upfront investment is required. Well constriction for example, can be an incredibly expensive venture, and prices can sky-rocket depending on soil type and depth of groundwater (Carter and Howsam 1994). 

Pumps, although significantly more affordable (with prices ranging from USD60 for a manual and USD360 for a motorised pump) can also put off potential farmers due to the lack of a supportive infrastructure, the absence of which can make them a far more expensive investment for farmers than they initially seem. To truly be a suitable form of agricultural production, pumps and the like need to be supported by a web of infrastructure and services that make their continued operation feasible and inexpensive.

A groundwater pump... pumping groundwater

Initially, there is a requirement for pump supply chains to be dramatically improved. Currently these are underdeveloped, with many communities forced to rely on extra-regional or national organisations and charities to supply these pumps. There is also a greater need for an increase in spare-part and repair availability in rural areas – currently both are severely polarised towards urban zones. There would also need to be great improvements in quality control, to improve the longevity and ergo financial viability of pumps. Without these institutions, maintenance and installation are far too costly and inaccessible for small-scale farmers. It is clear then that governments, NGOs and private organisations should focus on encouraging relevant infrastructure to develop, rather than just investing heavily in the construction of groundwater projects which then fall into disrepair (Villholth2013).

Energy Infrastructure

This is a relatively similar vein to that discussed above, but one that faces slightly different challenges. 

Currently, the vast majority of pumps are powered by diesel and petrol. This can create barriers to these groundwater abstraction technologies, if markets for these fuels do not exist or the fuels themselves are too expensive. This also arguable threatens the sustainability of schemes, as fuel markets (as all geographers worth their salt know) are highly variable and can create massive problems for supply in these rural areas.

Rural electrification in Nigeria

Whilst benefits to groundwater irrigation can be seen by increasing access to fuels then, this is not really the ideal solution for small-scale irrigators and is one that perhaps will not stand the test of time. Rather, governments and institutions should focus on the proliferation of sources of electricity. Currently, only 12% of rural Sub-Saharan Africa has access to electricity, and this arguably is holding back the spread of groundwater across the region. Villholth (2013) notes how not only are electrical pumps proven to be cleaner and have lower running costs, but also that there is a clear trend between rates of electrification and groundwater use for irrigation, as seen in countries such as South Africa, Kenya and Ethiopia. It is clear then that increased rural electrification and somewhat increased access to fuels will help promote and sustain groundwater irrigation.

That's it for now...

 

Unfortunately, in the interest of keeping my blog as trim as possible, I will have to call it there. Next time, we will talk about how access to capital, insecurity of tenure and access to markets are holding back the groundwater revolution, and how governments and NGOs can help pave the way for groundwater to take off.

Small-scale Groundwater Irrigation - Potential and Promise

When you read around the topic of groundwater irrigation in Africa, there seems to be growing popularity (both academic and practical) around the use of what is referred to as “small-scale irrigation” fed by groundwater. This small-scale irrigation (SSI) is seen to be making a significant contribution to food production in developing countries all across the world, and, although groundwater has been somewhat snubbed by African countries up till now (see my previous blog post where we investigate Giordano’s(2006) report into agricultural groundwater use), it is very much growing in importance in many regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa (Villholth 2013).

Before we investigate the extent of SSI across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), it is important to define what we mean by “small-scale irrigation”. Generally, SSI refers to irrigation on small plots, using a level of technology which farmers can operate and maintain with a high degree of efficiently and where farmers have autonomy over their practices and lands. Also falling under the definition of SSI is smallholder irrigation; likewise these are small-scale farms, however are privately or publicly owned (but still feature farmer control).

According to Villholth (2013), a current “true” estimate of the extent of SSI across Sub-Saharan Africa is around 1,248,800ha (similar to that provided by Giordano (2006)). Although official statistics regarding groundwater use are imperfect, assumptions can still be made; for example Villholth suggests that the fact that 800,000 motor pumps were imported into Ethiopia between 2004 and 2010 imply a growth in groundwater irrigation of around 100,000ha (assuming one in four of pumps were used for groundwater irrigation and irrigated plots were on average 0.5ha in area).

Small-scale Irrigation in Action

One might ask why such a practice is slowly gathering momentum as a popular farming technique. Both Villholth (2013) and Carter andHowsam (1994) agree that groundwater irrigation paints itself as a highly effective vehicle for bringing development and the benefits that come with it directly to the poor of SSA. This is largely because of the nature of groundwater; the resource itself is relatively communal, and is easily accessed by those who hold a patch of land in a suitable area. There is no need for water to be bought or disseminated at great expense, and the infrastructure required is relatively affordable. In many cases, groundwater provides the opportunity for the poor to support themselves literally "from the ground up".

Groundwater also holds promise as in many cases it is the only perennial water source for a region or area. It is essentially always available, and in many cases offers autonomy of control. This leads to vastly reduced risk for other inputs (for example, seeds, fertilizer and energy) as a consistent supply of water can be assured. This can in turn lead to an intensification of farming (reduced risk means farmers can be more assured in their investments paying off), diversification into cash crops and ultimately higher and more stable outputs that can either provide ample food or generate reliable revenues for an individual or community (Villholth 2013).

Many studies back-up the prowess of small-scale groundwater irrigation as a highly suitable technique. Dittoh et al. (2013) for example found that farmers in the Upper East region of Ghana that were using irrigation saw 20% higher net revenues relative to farmers using surface water. In terms of income, Ajayi and Nwalieji (2010) found  that the number of farmers in a high income bracket increased dramatically in Nigeria following the push for fadamas (irrigated land) since 1993 – an observation shared by the World Bank (2015) who have seen “increase in yield per hectare, quality products, availability of ready markets with good pricing guaranteed”. In fact, Namara et al. (2011) argue that groundwater irrigation makes communities far more secure, noting that rural communities are stabilized due to less distress migration, stemming from increased livelihoods and greater employment opportunities generated.

There seems to be a consensus then that groundwater-fed SSI may be a way forward for not only meeting food needs, but also providing a sustainable and reliable platform on which rural communities can begin to develop. But what is the true potential for SSI? Like most activities, it obviously has its limits, but what are these? While it is VERY tough to estimate groundwater availability, especially so in Africa where data collection is temperamental at best, Pavelic et al. (2013) have reached a rough figure. Through the creation of a simple catchment water-balance based method, which was applied at a national scale for 13 countries in the region, they estimated an area suitable for expansion of around 13 million hectares, which could potentially serve 26 million small farms or households.

This seems like the dream solution. The rural poor of Africa can seemingly build quite literally from “the ground up”, in a way that guarantees their security and autonomy, as well as a bright future. But is it really that easy? In reality, there are a huge variety of prerequisites that would need to be met before Africa could really take off on a “groundwater revolution”. Although promising, then, this solution also represents a huge challenge. This is something I will be discussing more next week.

Until next time.