Last week we explored in detail the potential and promise
that groundwater holds for Africa’s future. To briefly recap, we learnt about
the benefits that groundwater can bring to farmers and local communities, and
the potential for expansion of around 13 million hectares, which could serve 26
million families (according to Pavelic etal. 2013). Whilst it is no panacea, it seems then that groundwater could
really go a long way to helping solve Africa’s problem not only of food
security, but also of increasing water variability.
 |
| Groundwater may be the way forward for agiculture in Sub-Saharan Africa |
As with most solutions to Africa’s problems however, whilst
it looks very pretty on paper, it is not nearly as simple and straightforward
as it seems. While groundwater is promising, in reality for the vast majority
of Africans it is still a project that is too far out of reach, and there is a
lot of work that needs to be done to make it a viable and applicable farming
technique and to maximise the benefits it can provide.
There are several areas that need to be addressed to make
groundwater irrigation more appropriate and adoptable for small-scale farmers.
For the sake of simplicity, in this blog I will address them individually, but
in reality they are each highly connected, only adding to the complexity of the
issue.
Access to and Sustainability
of Groundwater Infrastructure
According to Villholth (2013), currently the majority of
small-scale groundwater irrigation is conducted through both manual lifting and
the use of small pumps (typically powered by petrol or diesel, and sometimes (but
rarely) electricity). Both are dramatically different methods, and hence
feature different challenges and requirements in order to become widespread.
Manual Groundwater
Infrastructure
Generally, the limitations that face manual techniques of
accessing groundwater are more situational than technical. These methods tend
to be found in areas underlain by shallow, high yielding aquifers, where
simple, low-technology methods are more than suitable for accessing relatively
abundant groundwater. Typically, then, issues stem from not a lack of
technology, but a lack of labour. Many of these areas in rural Africa have low
population densities, and hence expansion of groundwater use is limited by the
lack of population to support it. Whilst there is no real “fix” to this
problem, undoubtedly greater communications and transport infrastructure would
aid in increasing employment and accessibility to farms.
 |
| Shadufs are one method of manual or non-technical groundwater extraction |
Mechanical Groundwater
Infrastructure
In areas that demand more technical solutions to accessing
groundwater, the problems take an entirely different vein. Here issues are more
of affordability and sustainability than access to labour. To even gain access
to groundwater in these regions, a relatively significant upfront investment is
required. Well constriction for example, can be an incredibly expensive
venture, and prices can sky-rocket depending on soil type and depth of
groundwater (Carter and Howsam 1994).
Pumps, although significantly more affordable (with prices ranging
from USD60 for a manual and USD360 for a motorised pump) can also put off
potential farmers due to the lack of a supportive infrastructure, the absence
of which can make them a far more expensive investment for farmers than they
initially seem. To truly be a suitable form of agricultural production, pumps and the like need to be supported by a web of
infrastructure and services that make their continued operation feasible and
inexpensive.
 |
| A groundwater pump... pumping groundwater |
Initially, there is a requirement for pump supply chains to
be dramatically improved. Currently these are underdeveloped, with many
communities forced to rely on extra-regional or national organisations and
charities to supply these pumps. There is also a greater need for an increase
in spare-part and repair availability in rural areas – currently both are
severely polarised towards urban zones. There would also need to be great
improvements in quality control, to improve the longevity and ergo financial
viability of pumps. Without these institutions, maintenance and installation
are far too costly and inaccessible for small-scale farmers. It is clear then
that governments, NGOs and private organisations should focus on encouraging
relevant infrastructure to develop, rather than just investing heavily in the
construction of groundwater projects which then fall into disrepair (Villholth2013).
Energy
Infrastructure
This is a relatively similar vein to that discussed above,
but one that faces slightly different challenges.
Currently, the vast majority of pumps are powered by diesel
and petrol. This can create barriers to these groundwater abstraction
technologies, if markets for these fuels do not exist or the fuels themselves
are too expensive. This also arguable threatens the sustainability of schemes,
as fuel markets (as all geographers worth their salt know) are highly variable
and can create massive problems for supply in these rural areas.
 |
| Rural electrification in Nigeria |
Whilst benefits to groundwater irrigation can be seen by
increasing access to fuels then, this is not really the ideal solution for
small-scale irrigators and is one that perhaps will not stand the test of time.
Rather, governments and institutions should focus on the proliferation of
sources of electricity. Currently, only 12% of rural Sub-Saharan Africa has
access to electricity, and this arguably is holding back the spread of
groundwater across the region. Villholth (2013) notes how not only are
electrical pumps proven to be cleaner and have lower running costs, but also
that there is a clear trend between rates of electrification and groundwater use
for irrigation, as seen in countries such as South Africa, Kenya and Ethiopia.
It is clear then that increased rural electrification and somewhat increased access
to fuels will help promote and sustain groundwater irrigation.
That's it for now...
Unfortunately, in the interest of keeping my blog as trim as
possible, I will have to call it there. Next time, we will talk about how
access to capital, insecurity of tenure and access to markets are holding back
the groundwater revolution, and how governments and NGOs can help pave the way for groundwater to take off.
So interesting! Being a physical geographer I have never really considered how the technical aspects of access to groundwater can be a limitation. In your opinion, how sustainable do you think ground water is as a resource? Especially in the face of climate change many farmers will be turning it as a reliable source, yet with decreased levels of recharge (due to a decrease MAP in the lower lattitudes), do you think this will just turn into another finite resource as demand increases?
ReplyDeleteI actually explored the topic of groundwater and climate change in an earlier blog, and I think there is substantial debate as to what degree climate change will affect it. Whilst some academics argue it will face reduced recharge, others, such as Richard Taylor, instead see an increase in extreme events correlating with recharge events.
DeleteIn regards to sustainability, I think groundwater CAN be sustainable if suitable legislation is in place to monitor and protect it as a resource.
Very interesting post, Joe. I hadn't considered the market side of things with pumps running on petrol/diesel, but this is definitely something to consider. How easy do you think electrification will be in practice?
ReplyDeleteVery, very difficult. Electrification alone requires lots of supportive infrastructure, that many rural governments and communities simply cannot afford. This will pose a significant challenge, so for now I think strengthening of markets is the best step forward.
Delete